Social interaction has long been a subject of theoretical inquiry in both Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) and Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), but seldom has it been examined through the lens of digital embodiment. As the metaverse gains traction as a platform for learning and collaboration, understanding how its affordances construct behavioral engagement demands empirical scrutiny. Thus, this study examines the effects of avatar customization and communication modality on behavioral engagement within a metaverse-based simulation. Using a 2×2 factorial design, participants were randomly assigned to avatar (customized vs. generic) and modality (voice vs. text) conditions, with engagement tracked via a stealth assessment approach across multiple sessions. Findings indicate that avatar customization facilitated broader spatial exploration, while voice-based communication elicited higher interpersonal interaction. Critically, the convergence of both factors produced a compounded effect that yielded selective interaction effects on temporal and social dimensions of engagement. This study contributes a framework of affordance convergence that informs both the theoretical modeling of digital embodiment and the practical design of immersive learning platforms. As educational experiences increasingly unfold within socio-technical systems, the challenge for both HCI and CMC is to design environments where social interaction is both mediated and dynamically co-constructed through the alignment of interactional affordances.

Introduction: As digital platforms increasingly mediate language learning, the challenge is no longer simply how to deliver content online but how to design environments that cultivate authentic multilingual practice. While multilingualism has long been linked to enhanced metalinguistic awareness and domain-general cognitive flexibility, the role of multimodal digital environments in fostering these outcomes remains underexplored.

Purpose: Grounded in sociocognitive and multimodal interactionist perspectives, this study examines how a cross-device metaverse platform can support multilingual development through spatially organized, task-based, and avatar-mediated interaction. Specifically, it investigates whether multilingual engagement in language-zoned virtual spaces improves learners' communicative performance, affective engagement, and cognitive control compared to conventional instruction.

Methodology: Using a quasi-experimental cluster-assigned pretest-posttest control group design, learners engaged in communicative scenarios across English, Filipino, and Mandarin within language-zoned virtual spaces that cued role-appropriate language use. Data were collected using performance-based role-play assessments (code-switching accuracy, communicative competence), oral fluency measures (WPM), motivation and anxiety questionnaires, and a Stroop interference task to assess cognitive flexibility.

Findings: Compared to peers in a control condition, learners in the metaverse environment demonstrated significantly greater gains in code-switching accuracy, spoken fluency, motivational engagement, and cognitive control. Specifically, experimental participants showed improved context-appropriate language selection and reduced cross-language interference when shifting between English, Filipino, and Mandarin during task-based role-play scenarios. They also produced more fluent spoken output and demonstrated stronger communicative competence ratings in completing real-world interaction tasks. In addition, learners reported higher motivational engagement and cognitive results, further revealing improvements in inhibitory control and attentional regulation. Collectively, these outcomes suggest that spatially cued multilingual interaction in the metaverse supports integrated gains in linguistic performance and executive functioning.

Originality/Value: This study provides empirical evidence that multilingual development is shaped not only by linguistic input but by how digital learning ecologies choreograph spatial, social, and multimodal cues into context-responsive language use. By operationalizing multilingual interaction through spatial language zoning, avatar-mediated tasks, and AI-supported multilingual dialogue, the study positions the metaverse as a semiotically rich pedagogical ecology that can simultaneously foster code-switching competence, oral fluency, motivational engagement, and domain-general executive control. The findings advance multimodal multilingual education theory by demonstrating how context-sensitive interaction design can generate co-emergent communicative, affective, and cognitive benefits in multilingual learners.

The metaverse is reshaping interaction, learning, and community-building in immersive virtual environments. While interest in metaverse adoption is growing, most research has focused on technological predictors and has overlooked the experiential dimensions that are central to sustained engagement in these spaces. This gap limits understanding of how users develop and maintain meaningful virtual existence in the metaverse. Therefore, this study develops the Metaverse Experience and Technology Acceptance (META) model by integrating the principles of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Embodied Social Presence Theory (ESPT). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to analyze data collected from 924 students with metaverse experience. The META model demonstrates strong explanatory power in accounting for both technology acceptance and user experience in virtual worlds. Moreover, the findings indicate that adoption of the metaverse as a digital university extends beyond the functional focus of TAM to include the immersive, social, and embodied elements emphasized in ESPT. By bridging technological and experiential determinants, the META model advances theoretical understanding and offers actionable insights for creating metaverse environments that promote conducive digital existence.

Teaching in the metaverse presents a dynamic frontier for educational innovation. Avatars, serving as digital representations of teachers, play a pivotal role in shaping virtual learning experiences. This study explores the impact of avatar design and behavioral realism on student perceptions of credibility and teaching effectiveness in avatar-mediated environments. True experimental research with a 2 × 2 factorial design was conducted involving students from three campuses. Across all experimental conditions, students consistently favored realistic avatars over cartoonish ones. A crisscross pattern emerged in relation to behavioral realism. Cartoonish avatars exhibiting realistic behaviors received higher ratings for instructor credibility but not for teaching effectiveness, whereas realistic avatars with the same gestures received higher ratings for teaching effectiveness but not for instructor credibility. From an educational standpoint, leveraging realistic avatars with authentic behaviors holds great promise for enhancing the teaching and learning experiences in the metaverse. Overall, this study contributes to the growing body of literature on educational metaverse and avatar-mediated teaching and learning by shedding light on the importance of avatar design and behavioral realism in shaping student perceptions and experiences.

Educational institutions orchestrate a variety of in-school events and activities to enrich the student experience. Given their benefits, it is crucial to encourage student participation. With the recent advent of the metaverse, there is an opportunity to engage students due to their inclination toward adopting such technologies. However, the dynamics of celebrating school events within these virtual worlds remain largely unexplored. Our study sought to address this gap by examining school event celebrations in the metaverse through an appreciative inquiry approach. During Valentine's Day, we introduced a special edition of our educational metaverse (i.e., MILES Virtual World) tailored to celebrate the occasion. We discovered that conducting school events in the metaverse requires the integration of real-life social rituals to augment students' social experiences and foster a sense of community. Moreover, the need for realism and the mirroring of real-world traditions in virtual settings emerged as critical drivers for creating more emotionally satisfying and engaging user experiences. The challenge of encouraging student participation in physical events parallels the issue encountered in virtual worlds, where students may feel discouraged from participating if they do not observe their friends' presence within the metaverse. Our study also calls for collective engagement in shaping the virtual world to ensure more inclusive, engaging, and enriched educational metaverses. As we continue to navigate the evolving landscape of immersive digital environments, the insights gained from our research underscore the importance of collaboration, innovation, and student agency in shaping the future of education.

Social relationships are important to human well-being and interaction. Recently, there has been growing interest in how they are formed in various digital media, including social media and video games. Amid the rise of digital engagement, the metaverse has emerged as an essential virtual environment for social interaction. Unfortunately, there is limited understanding of how social relationships are developed and maintained within the metaverse. In this study, we explored the dynamics of social relationship development in a metaverse world. Using a one-shot case study, we assessed the roles of immersion and embodiment, as well as the moderating effect of copresence, in building social relationships through multiple regression analysis. Our findings show that with higher levels of immersion and embodiment, the formation of social relationships in the metaverse is significantly improved. Copresence further intensifies these effects, which is indicative of its crucial role in virtual social interactions. These results indicate that enhancing the immersion, embodiment, and copresence elements in metaverse environments can encourage stronger social bonds among users. Overall, this study advances our understanding of online social relationship formation in the metaverse environments and its design and development.

Immersive technologies have generated significant interest across various academic disciplines. The necessity for more authentic, interactive, and immersive artificial environments led to the growing popularity of the metaverse. Unfortunately, not all metaverse types have been broadly covered in educational research. This inadequacy highlights a gap in understanding the potential benefits and drawbacks of metaverse technologies for education. To address this research gap, we created a metaverse called “MILES Virtual World” that embodies the concepts of lifelogging and mirror worlds. Following the principles of the Embodied Social Presence Theory, the application allows students to socialize through customizable avatars and engage in a variety of activities that closely resemble those in the physical world. We adopted a mixed-method approach using a convergent parallel design to evaluate the application. Our quantitative analysis reveals that students feel highly present and engaged in the virtual environment, with a sense of agency and immersion. It also underscores the importance of enhancing embodiment and copresence to create more effective virtual world experiences and opportunities for social interactions. Meanwhile, our qualitative analysis uncovers several underlying subthemes, including avatar customization, identity exploration, virtual items, communication, entertainment, autonomy, freedom of expression, realism, challenges, shared experiences, and a sense of belonging within the metaverse. Overall, our study provides valuable insights into the potential of metaverse technology in the educational context, and how it can be harnessed to create more effective and engaging academic experiences for students.

The emergence of the metaverse has expanded the vital role of virtual worlds in education. It extends the traditional configuration of virtual spaces by offering a more immersive, interactive, and social experience. Unfortunately, there is insufficient literature on how to develop a metaverse application aligned with academic standards and best practices. In this study, we adopted a co-design approach in remodeling our mobile educational metaverse to draw a blueprint for existing and future metaverse technology adopters. We sent a follow-up survey to stakeholders inviting free-text comments. This survey focused on the challenges, issues, and expected features from the perspectives of developers, teachers, and students, respectively. Our results revealed several challenges that developers face when building a metaverse, such as technical infrastructure, student engagement, avatar customization, and performance optimization. Meanwhile, teachers emphasized potential issues that may arise from the use of metaverse technology in educational settings, such as learning outcomes, health and safety, digital citizenship, and ethics and morality. Finally, students expected several key features of an educational metaverse application, such as socialization and collaboration, virtual world interactions, metaverse optimization, realistic graphics, and minigames and activities. The implications of these findings are significant and can help other educational institutions seeking to integrate metaverse technology into their academic services. Overall, our study presents an initial foundation for further exploration and advancement within the rapidly evolving field of metaverse technology.